Background: The rising prevalence of antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria necessitates the exploration of alternative therapeutic agents from medicinal plants. Moringa oleifera, widely recognized for its nutritional and medicinal properties, represents a potential source of novel antibacterial compounds. Objective: This study evaluated the phytochemical composition and antibacterial activity of aqueous and ethanol extracts of Moringa oleifera leaves, seeds, and roots against clinical bacterial isolates. Methods: We collected clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella typhi from the Specialist Hospital in Sokoto. We prepared aqueous and ethanol extracts of M. oleifera leaves, seeds, and roots and screened them for phytochemical constituents. We evaluated antibacterial activity using the agar well diffusion method and determined minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) by broth dilution. We compared the extract's activity with that of ciprofloxacin, a standard antibiotic. Results: Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, phenols, glycosides, steroids, and carbohydrates, with distribution varying across plant parts and solvents. Ethanol extracts demonstrated stronger antibacterial activity than aqueous extracts. The seed ethanol extract produced the highest zones of inhibition against E. coli (25 mm) and S. aureus (25 mm). In comparison, the root ethanol extract showed strong activity against S. aureus (22 mm) and S. typhi (21 mm). S. aureus was the most susceptible organism, while P. aeruginosa exhibited the least susceptibility. MIC values ranged from 15.6 to 125 mg/mL, and MBC values ranged from 31.3 to 500 mg/mL. Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference in extract activity compared with ciprofloxacin (p = 0.428). Conclusion: Moringa oleifera extracts exhibit significant antibacterial activity against clinically relevant bacterial pathogens, supporting their potential as alternative or complementary therapeutic agents. Seed and root extracts showed particular promise, warranting further investigation and development.

The human gut microbiome, comprising trillions of microorganisms, functions as an "essential organ" with metabolic, immunological, and protective roles critical to host health. This review synthesizes current evidence on the relationship between gut microbiota and chronic disease pathogenesis, drawing from 50 high-impact studies identified through a comprehensive literature search. Dysbiosis microbial imbalance is strongly associated with metabolic disorders (obesity, type 2 diabetes, NAFLD), cardiovascular disease, inflammatory bowel disease, autoimmune conditions, neurodegenerative diseases, and certain cancers. Key mechanisms include immune modulation, regulation of intestinal barrier integrity, and production of bioactive metabolites (short-chain fatty acids, trimethylamine N-oxide) that influence host physiology. Environmental factors, particularly diet and lifestyle, shape microbial composition, while therapeutic interventions including dietary modification, probiotics, and faecal microbiota transplantation show promise but variable efficacy. Despite significant advances in understanding microbiome-disease associations through highthroughput sequencing, challenges remain in establishing causality due to confounding variables and inter-individual variability. This review highlights the gut microbiome's pivotal role in chronic disease pathogenesis while identifying critical research gaps requiring longitudinal studies, standardised dysbiosis definitions, and rigorous validation of personalised therapeutic approaches.